Our consciousness-through-shared-resonance proposal has some recent precedents. Fries first proposed his Communication Through Coherence CTC model in and issued a substantial update to his theory in Fries, The update summarized the relevant research in the intervening decade, and also modified the original theory in light of contrary evidence.
Our aim, however, in this paper and our previous work is to generalize insights from the study of mammalian consciousness to a broader theory about consciousness and ontology that applies beyond mammalian consciousness, potentially to all physical entities this is what panpsychism means in this context.
In the absence of coherence, inputs arrive at random phases of the excitability cycle and will have a lower effective connectivity. A postsynaptic neuronal group receiving inputs from several different presynaptic groups responds primarily to the presynaptic group to which it is coherent.
Thereby, selective communication is implemented through selective coherence. Coherence also allows for entrainment of certain neurons to the dominant resonance frequency id. In addition to rendering communication effective and precise, coherence also renders communication selective. If one set of synaptic inputs, constituting one neuronal representation, succeeds in triggering postsynaptic excitation followed by inhibition, this inhibition closes the door in front of other inputs.
Those other inputs are then unable to transmit the neuronal representation that they constitute, and they are unable to trigger inhibition themselves. Thereby, the winning set of synaptic inputs conquers the perisomatic inhibition in the postsynaptic neuronal group, entrains it to its own rhythm, and thereby establishes a communication link that is selective or in other words, exclusive. Demertzi et al.
Zeki and Bartels have also suggested an approach that shares certain features with the model proposed here. It is now widely accepted that evolution entailed a process in which simple organisms combined to form the organelles e. Just as life evolved the capacity to integrate independent living creatures into more complex singular life forms, it may have similarly developed the capacity to integrate subjective experiences into nested hierarchies of higher-order conscious entities.
We share this view of nested hierarchies representing the structure of consciousness, with the difference that we posit far more than the three levels of consciousness that Zeki posits. Drawing on differences in the processing rates of different areas of the visual system, Zeki suggests that the brain engages in a nested hierarchy of distinct conscious experiences leading to a final unified experience.
He proposes three hierarchical levels at which consciousness takes place in the brain: micro-consciousness corresponding to the different levels of the visual system that process distinct attributes e. Zeki further suggests that each of these nested levels of consciousness occur in a distinct temporal order, with the lower order levels being ahead of and feeding into the higher order levels.
Zeki describes his model as follows Zeki, :. It thus becomes possible to distinguish three hierarchical levels of consciousness: the levels of micro-consciousness, of macro-consciousness, and of the unified consciousness. Of necessity, one level depends upon the presence of the previous one. Within each level, one can postulate a temporal hierarchy. This has been demonstrated for the level of microconsciousness, because color and motion are perceived at different times.
It has also been demonstrated for the level of the macro-consciousnesses, because binding between attributes takes longer than binding within attributes… Micro- and macro-consciousnesses, with their individual temporal hierarchies, lead to the final, unified consciousness, that of myself as the perceiving person. Accordingly, the inorganic world may involve only the most micro-level conscious observers at the level of atoms and molecules.
In contrast, life may have evolved the capacity to develop hierarchies of conscious observers within observers, based on the foundational level of highly rudimentary consciousness present within atoms and molecules, with each level subsuming a more macroscopic perspective.
This process leads ultimately to the highest level at which the unified dominant experience of the organism occurs. Zeki offers a way of distinguishing his proposed levels, namely, by the temporal order in which they occur, with higher order experiences occurring temporally downstream. The new macro-conscious entity supervenes on the micro-conscious entities.
But what type of resonance leads to such combination? Confining our consideration for now to mammalian consciousness, we have good data to support the suggestion that it is a shared electrical resonance at various frequencies that is generally the proximate cause of combination, as discussed above Fries, , There may also be a shared quantum entanglement resonance that precedes and leads to this shared electrical resonance , or that has some other relationship to the shared electrical resonance.
We turn this to issue in the next section. In other words, physical structures can fail to produce macro-consciousness if the shared resonance states remain highly localized. It is large-scale shared resonance that is key to the dominant consciousness that humans enjoy as normal waking consciousness, for example.
These dynamics may explain why during seizures large areas of the brain can be synchronized at local and regional scales without conscious experience at the global level. Accordingly, during absence seizures lower-level system individual neurons and local clusters of neurons are in synchronization but higher levels of organization lose their distinct synchronization and thus reportable conscious states are generally not possible though there is considerable debate in this area with respect to absence seizures and regional synchronization: Jiruska et al.
Resonance reflects the dynamics of the physical structures, so the generally stable physical structure can remain stable while the states of resonance, and thus states of consciousness, can and do change substantially. Some comments on the controversy about claims of quantum phenomena in the biological context are important before we delve into details of quantum biology. There has been a long debate about whether quantum phenomena are even possible in biological systems Tegmark, ; Hameroff and Penrose, ; Craddock et al.
Some physicists and neuroscientists adopt the view that quantum phenomena cannot be present in the warm wet systems of mammalian brains. While we are open to the possibility of quantum phenomena in mammalian brains, and possibly being part of the complex causal phenomena of consciousness, our resonance theory of consciousness does not require the presence of quantum phenomena for its validity.
There is plenty of room between accepting, for example, that some brain dynamics seem to operate independently of traditional electrochemical neuronal pathways, and the notion that quantum phenomena must be invoked to explain such apparent anomalies. There is a vast middle ground that should be explored before such an alternative explanation is considered to be necessary. What is happening that seems to allow such rapid communication across large parts of mammalian brains?
Freeman and others Pockett, ; McFadden, , a , b , have suggested that the electric field itself, which is created by the brain and supervenes on the brain, becomes a mediator of information for recent and interesting data about slow oscillating electric field coupling allowing non-synaptic neural communication, see Chiang et al. Our field theoretic model leads to our view of the phase transition as a condensation that is comparable to the formation of fog and rain drops from water vapor, and that might serve to model both the gamma and beta phase transitions.
Weingarten et al. We are agnostic currently about the likelihood or necessity for quantum mechanisms mediating mammalian consciousness, or for the necessity of quantum mechanisms to be involved in a broader explanation of consciousness beyond the category of mammalian brains.
At this juncture there is not strong evidence that an ongoing quantum synchrony is the pathway for shared information between the constituent micro-conscious entities. That appears to primarily occur through electrochemical pathways. In this ontology, all actual entities exist in a large interconnected web. These frequencies are simply waves of the field itself, not something existing over and above the field.
The universe consists of only the field and various waves moving through that field. What we think of as matter or energy consist of more concentrated and higher frequency waves of that field.
This is the ontology strongly suggested by quantum field theory, but even though quantum field theory has been with us for half a century, its details are complex and controversial. This section looks further into what fundamental forces are relevant to consciousness. There are various information pathways we should look to in our survey of potential information pathways, starting with the fundamental physical interactions: electromagnetism; gravity; the strong and weak nuclear forces; and the newer but now well-established quantum entanglement interaction.
We suggest the provisional conclusion that characteristics of electricity and electromagnetism more generally seem to make it the most suitable type of resonance for combination beyond the atomic scale, perhaps mediated or enhanced by various types of subcellular quantum resonance.
By definition, the strong and weak nuclear forces generally apply only to nuclear-scale physics, which seems to leave these forces out of the equation in terms of any putative consciousness larger than a nucleus or an atom. Gravity is the other established long-range force but we have little reason to believe that gravity plays much if any role in consciousness because it is so weak compared to electromagnetism.
Penrose and Hameroff have, however, suggested a role for gravity in ongoing quantum collapse in their recent work revising their Orchestrated Objective Reduction theory of consciousness Hameroff and Penrose, , based on the proposed Diosi-Penrose objective reduction approach to quantum gravity.
Because electromagnetism is so many orders of magnitude stronger than gravity it seems to be the best candidate currently for the primary resonance pathway at the scale of biological life and macro-consciousness. A growing body of evidence suggests, however, that quantum effects are also operative and influential at the organic scale, as discussed above. If we accept the provisional conclusion that electricity or electromagnetism more generally is the place to look for shared resonance between neurons and brain regions, we must still consider the question: what components of neurons and what physical processes in neurons must achieve a shared resonance for the combination of micro-conscious entities to occur?
A growing body of research examines the subcellular processing taking place in microtubules and other proteins like actin, beta spectrin, SNARE complex and clathrin Sahu et al. Microtubules and similar proteins are common in neurons and were previously thought to be a type of support scaffolding for these types of cells.
Recent research has, however, shown that these molecules can be rich information processors through the activity of dipolar tubulin molecules, at least in the case of microtubules. Hameroff calculates at least 10 16 additional operations per second arising from microtubule operations in each neuron , which is a massive increase over the roughly 10 5 operations per second per neuron thought to be possible through axonal-dendritic connections alone. But here we suggest an alternative way in which such oscillation frequencies might come about, namely as beat frequencies, arising when OR is applied to superpositions of quantum states of slightly different energies.
This makes the task of finding an origin for these observed frequencies far simpler and more plausible. Could a higher frequency shared resonance — well beyond the 30— Hz of gamma frequency — of these subcellular processes lead to the combination of consciousness at the subcellular level? Craddock et al.
Or is it only the cellular and inter-cellular levels of resonance that we should look to as the causal mechanisms for combination of consciousness?
Or do subcellular processes precede in time the cellular processes, at a more granular scale, which then lead to a shared resonance at the global level of each brain? These are all questions that should be active areas of research and we are optimistic that research in these areas will grow considerably in the coming years. We suggest a corollary to the resonance hypothesis: that each particular mind may enjoy its own resonance signature, a particular frequency that is commonly manifested during waking consciousness.
This signature will change slightly in each moment, or will perhaps oscillate around an average frequency value. But as just suggested, there may be average values around which our own individual signatures oscillate.
In this manuscript, we offer a meta-synthetic framework for conceptualizing how complex conscious experience may emerge in physical systems. Our approach starts by assuming panpsychism as a defensible and for one of us, Hunt, particularly compelling approach for addressing the Hard Problem of how consciousness relates to matter.
The version of panpsychism we adopt suggests that all physical entities are accompanied by at least some rudimentary type of consciousness. It is only in more complex physical systems, however, that richer types of consciousness arise. Having adopted this perspective, we argue that the concept of shared resonance could address one of the fundamental challenges i. We suggest below a framework for possible experiments for testing our framework as well as other theories.
It is important to note, however, a key methodological and epistemological limitation up-front: all attempts to assess the presence or nature of consciousness in any particular system, and related attempts to assess different theories of consciousness, must rely on reasonable inference rather than the notion of proof or any type of incontrovertibility, because the only consciousness we can know with any certainty is our own.
This limitation applies to regular human life as much as it does to the science of consciousness. This fundamental epistemological problem is surmounted frequently in practice, however, in that we, each of us, reasonably infer that other people are conscious, based on their behaviors, speech, and appearance.
MCC refers to any reliable means identified for measuring aspects of consciousness. If not now, as AI gets better and better will future similar works, as they increase in complexity and depth, suggest real consciousness in the AI that created them?
The suggestion is that we can learn something meaningful about consciousness by observing the creative products of ostensibly conscious entities, and make judgments about the consciousness or lack thereof of an entity capable of creating whatever CCC is being considered.
Demertzi and colleagues, and various other researchers have been working to identify reliable markers, but this is still a nascent field. Dehaene states the problem clearly p. Testing the framework presented here should focus initially on the three conjectures in our Table 1. Conjectures 1—3 in Table 1 are the core of General Resonance Theory. There are many ways that various MCC may be measured to test conjectures 1—3 and we are fleshing out these ideas in other work.
It may be especially useful to examine minimally conscious states induced by drugs or sleep since these provide a boundary condition for the minimal requirements for consciousness. Accordingly, if shared resonance underpins the combination of consciousness Conjecture 1 , then various resonance chains should be observed in conscious but not unconscious states. If the boundaries of macro-conscious entities depend on the velocity and frequency of resonant chains Conjecture 2 , this should be reflected in differential access to specific information that is accessible within the cycle time of each information pathway examined.
Finally, if lower-level organizational systems combine into various nested states of consciousness Conjecture 3 , then the synchronization and information integration characteristics between one level to the next at various levels of organization should resemble in key ways that associated with the arising of dominant conscious states in humans and other mammals.
Although much work needs to be done in this regard, we are encouraged by the information processing approaches developed in the IIT model Oizumi et al. For example, Fanelli offers a formal universal model of information compression that might be used to characterize the information extraction associated with minimally conscious states.
This compression value might then be used to examine information sharing at lower levels. A prediction of Conjecture 3 is that information compression values should be similar in some ways across organizational levels. Resonance is not a part of IIT. As discussed above, GRT follows the principle that the many become one and are increased by one — there is no extinction of subsidiary conscious entities.
A key difference between the two theories, however, is that GWT is explicitly meant to explain human consciousness and the differences between dominant consciousness, which is what we humans enjoy as normal conscious awareness, and how it relates to subconscious and preconscious processes. Nested conscious entities in GRT are the subconscious and preconscious processes in GWT, from the perspective of the dominant consciousness. And each level of nested consciousness will have subsidiary conscious entities that are subconscious to it.
So rather than viewing subconscious or preconscious entities as essentially zombie agents Koch, , we view these lower-level entities as conscious for themselves, but generally in a far more rudimentary manner than dominant human consciousness.
Although our proposed theory offers a possible way of accounting for how micro-conscious entities can combine to form macro-conscious entities, we acknowledge that even if resonant systems bind in the manner we are suggesting, it does not necessarily follow that all types of resonating structures are conscious — we could, of course, be wrong about our axioms and posited mechanisms for the combination of consciousness!
Our suggested framework will need substantial empirical support before it can be considered a complete and viable theory. We argue, in general, for an approach that entertains without necessarily endorsing various approaches to the problems of consciousness.
Other conceptual frameworks are possible. Indeed, one of us has developed Riddle and Schooler, a related theory of the organization of neural systems that posits the existence of nested information processing hierarchies [termed Nested Observer Windows NOWs ], distributed across multiple spatial and temporal scales.
The NOW model is consistent with the possibility that some kind of consciousness occurs at all lower levels in neural hierarchies, no matter how rudimentary such consciousness may be as the General Resonance Theory developed in the present paper posits. However, the NOW theory does not assume that all nested observer windows necessarily entail subjective experience. Rather, in the NOW model, consciousness may emerge at a certain level of system complexity.
Given the elusiveness of objective measures of the necessarily subjective aspects of consciousness, data suggesting the presence of consciousness at lower levels of neural complexity, for example, will never be considered incontrovertible evidence by all parties. Nevertheless, such findings would add to the weight of evidence in support of the views proposed in the present paper, and the key purpose of the present paper is to inspire others to propose and complete such tests for various theories of consciousness, not just for General Resonance Theory.
In sum, our resonance theory of consciousness attempts to connect ongoing research efforts in various fields with the notion, suggested in some manner by various thinkers over the last two decades, that shared resonance synchronization is key to the nature of consciousness.
This process provides a possible framework for addressing the combination of consciousness in all actual entities — that is, we posit this as a general mechanism applicable to all physical systems — not just in the context of mammalian or vertebrate consciousness.
We address the various combination problems posed by Chalmers in Supplementary Appendix 2. The higher speed of information exchange made possible by various energy pathway phase transitions in biological systems allows biological life to achieve larger-scale resonant structures than would otherwise be possible — and thus significantly larger macro-conscious entities than are achieved in non-living systems.
TH wrote most of the draft and incorporated feedback through numerous rounds of revisions and discussion from JS. The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.
Arsiwalla, X. Measuring the complexity of consciousness. Baars, B. Global workspace theory of consciousness: toward a cognitive neuroscience of human experience. Brain Res. Bandyopadhyay, A. This test is typically performed with the machine turned off, however advanced signal processing can also be used to average out running condition vibration and identify only the free vibration.
If it is determined that resonance is in fact the cause of excessive vibration, what can be done to stop or minimize the effect of a resonant condition? The natural frequency of a system is dependent upon two main factors; stiffness, and mass.
Where k is the stiffness and m is the mass. Therefore, in order to change the natural frequency, we need to change either k or m or both. Typically, the objective is to increase the natural frequency such that it is above any expected vibration frequencies. If the natural frequency is above or significantly far away from any expected vibration frequencies the resonance will likely no be excited. This theory forms the basis for any structural redesigns implemented to avoid resonance.
In practice, the following rules can be used to shift a natural frequency and minimize the vibration response of a system;. If changing the natural frequency is determined to be the best solution, it is important to fully characterize the system before attempting any structural redesigns.
Recently we performed a startup vibration analysis on a small building adjacent to a MW natural gas power turbine. On startup it was noted that there was a large increase in vibration in the building when the turbine went through the rpm range. A modal impact test of the building showed a natural frequency at the same cpm frequency, confirming the presence of a resonant condition.
One could easily assume just adding stiffness to the support structure of the building would reduce vibration amplitudes. However, it was known that the first shaft critical of the rotor was around cpm. The length of each arrow is proportional to the g value at that point. Now you can see the first mode shape, which we have got from real measurements Figure 2. For simple objects you can calculate the mode shapes, but for a complicated construction it is not possible, you have to measure it.
We analyzed the frame by hitting it with hammer. When the machine is operating, you can also measure the vibration levels at every point. In this case the frame is not excited by the hammer but by operational speed.
The vibration levels will not be the same on all points of the machine. Measure all of them and draw the arrows again, you will get the first operational deflection shape of the machine. For finding the next operational deflection shapes, you have to know the spectrum of vibration on each point.
Knowing the machine shapes is important for machine understanding. It enables you to measure these shapes very simply and then illustratively animate the results. In the next example I show you why it is important to know the mode shapes which are the cause of the vibration problem.
We used the shaker and the rubber cord. The first natural frequency is 10 Hz and you can see the first mode shape Figure 3. If I need to decrease the vibration level, then I can add the pillar to many places and it will work. But sometimes the second mode shape could be the problem rather than the first. Now you can see the second natural frequency Figure 4. The location of the pillar is now much more important. If I add it in the middle, then the vibration remains unchanged.
Back to our first example with the steel beam.
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