Railway infrastructure can also be damaged by high air temperatures. Heat can result in the expansion or buckling of tracks which can delay trains or in extreme cases led to a train derailment. Utilities, in particular electricity and water are susceptible to damage from extreme heat events. The demand for electricity and water increases during periods with high temperatures and may exceed the supply. Rolling blackouts and restrictions on water usage may be implemented.
Electrical infrastructure can be affected. The efficiency of transmission lines decreases due to high air temperatures and power lines may expand which can make them more susceptible to damage.
Cold waves generally do not result in as much property damage as many of the other identified hazards. Damage can be caused by the thermal contraction of materials and is a fairly rare occurrence in Ontario. Damage is more likely in urban areas due to the concentration of critical infrastructure including roads and bridges within the area and due to the demands that a large population may place on a utility service. Like during a heat wave, the demand for electricity often increases during a cold wave.
The demand for heating and lighting purposes may exceed the supply resulting in blackouts. If pipes and water mains are not properly insulated, the water may freeze and expand causing the pipes to burst. As the ice melts, this can cause flooding in homes.
Some metals and materials become brittle and are more prone to failure during exposure to extreme cold temperatures. Fires may occur as a secondary hazard as people may resort to unsafe heating methods. Cold, denser air has a higher oxygen content which can increase the intensity of a fire.
The Ontario environment is not particularly vulnerable to extreme temperatures. The majority of native plants and animals in Ontario have adapted to occasional heat waves and the environmental damage caused by a heat wave is often minimal.
However, prolonged, higher than usual temperatures, especially when coupled with high humidity may result in heat stress in animals and plants, especially those that have been introduced to Ontario, including many agricultural plants. High temperatures can negatively affect animal activity, nutritional intake, reproduction and mortality. Plants, including agricultural crops may also suffer damage.
For some crops, a heat wave during the growing season may result in a decrease in the crop yield and grain quality. While aquatic ecosystems are less likely to suffer negative impacts from a heat wave, a prolonged heat wave may result in some damage. High water temperatures have less dissolved oxygen which is necessary for the survival of marine organisms such as fish.
Low oxygen levels and high water temperatures can also trigger increased nutrient pollution resulting in algal blooms. The general negative effects of cold waves on animals are similar to those of a heat wave; decreased animal activity, nutritional uptake, reproduction and mortality. Greater quantities of food may be needed as animals burn more calories from reactions to the cold, such as shivering.
A cold wave that occurs before crops have been harvested can result in damage to fruit and other plants. A prolonged, extreme cold wave can result in rivers and lakes completely freezing which could kill marine life.
Agriculture and tourism are the industries that are most likely to be negatively impacted by a heat wave. The impact of a heat wave on agriculture depends on the availability of water. A prolonged, extreme cold wave can result in rivers and lakes completely freezing which may disrupt shipping. Agriculture may be negatively affected depending on the time of year in which the cold wave occurs.
In , a heat wave which lasted from July 5 — 11 affected Central and Southern Ontario and the Prairie provinces. Toronto experienced its hottest day on record since with a high of Air quality greatly decreased while water and electricity usage soared.
Fourteen elderly people died in Ontario due to heat related factors. Environmental impacts were also noted. The water levels of the Great Lakes were recorded as being the lowest in more than a decade. Canadian Disaster Database, Provinces from British Columbia to Ontario experienced a cold wave from December to January In many areas, cold temperatures were combined with snow, ice and high winds which resulted in a power outage for approximately 60, houses in southwestern British Columbia.
In Manitoba, five deaths from exposure to the cold temperatures were reported and two other people lost their lives in Alberta due to accidents. Frozen pipes burst in many buildings in Ontario. Rivers, lakes and other bodies of water provide many benefits to nearby communities. They can provide a community with a supply of water for human, agricultural and industrial consumption, transportation routes for shipping and encourage recreational activities. Floodplains, which are generated by the natural fluctuations of a water body, provide fairly flat land which appears at first glance to be ideal for construction and a naturally fertile soil which is beneficial for agriculture.
Despite the benefits to communities, water bodies are also a source of risk. Floods have been identified by the Government of Canada as being the most frequent natural hazard in Canada. Two people leave their flooded house by boat in Kashechewan, EMO, The conditions leading to a flood begin with an influx of an amount of water into a river or stream. As the volume of water increases, the depth, width and speed of the river or stream increases.
These areas, which are not underwater except during periods of flooding, are referred to as floodplains MNR, As some of the water moves over the floodplains its velocity begins to decrease which results in the deposition of sediment carried by the water. Overtime the sediment buildings up creating a natural levee which increases in height with each subsequent flood Nelson, While a floodplain may appear to be an ideal location for human habitation, with fairly level ground and fertile soil, it is an indicator that future flood events are likely to occur in that area.
The severity of damage caused by a flood depends on the depth, the amount of property and infrastructure, flow velocity, duration, contamination, sediment load and the population vulnerability. The World Meteorological Organization and the Global Water Partnership have identified three categories of tangible flood property damage:.
Improvements in flood prevention, mitigation, warning and response systems and procedures have greatly decreased the potential loss of life from flooding in developed countries Nelson, However, floods still have the potential to cause significant property and economic damage and some require evacuations. After the floodwaters have subsided, exposure to objects contaminated by substances e. Flooding can also negatively affect utilities and critical infrastructure MNR, Utilities such as wastewater treatment, electricity and gas may be disrupted in the event of a flood.
Emergency ground vehicles may be unable to respond if roads and bridges are flooded, washed out or covered by debris.
The frequency of flooding, in particular urban flooding; appears to be increasing. Urban flooding occurs when the water volume, usually from extreme precipitation or nearby riverine flooding overwhelms the drainage capacity of an urban area Parliamentary Office of Science and Technology, Extreme precipitation events, ageing drainage infrastructure and sewer back-up and an increase in built-up or paved land all increase the number of urban flooding incidents.
Urban floods have the potential to cause greater amounts of damage due to the greater concentration of people and property within an urban area.
Due to the changes to the natural drainage patterns, runoff may collect and create new channels which flood areas which were not previously identified as having a significant risk of flooding.
In addition, floods in urban areas have an increased risk of contamination by harmful substances due to the increased presence of sewage treatment plants, waste dumps and household and industrial chemicals. The province of Ontario has a history of active flood planning and management Conservation Ontario, The Ministry of Natural Resources, Conservation Authorities and municipalities all work to manage and respond to flooding Conservation Ontario, This program recommended best practices including structural e.
In order to prevent and mitigate flood damages, Ontario has more than dams, dykes, channels and structures to diminish erosion. A study done in showed the success of the flood reduction measures put into practice by the Ministry of Natural Resources, the Conservation Authorities and the municipalities. The study examined flood water levels and the estimated cost of damage due to floods in Ontario and Michigan.
The findings were that although Ontario experienced higher water levels during flooding, the associated cost of damages was significantly less in Ontario than in Michigan Conservation Ontario, As seen in figure 3, southern Ontario has the greatest number of heavy rainfall events.
Northern communities, such as those along the James Bay coast are particularly at risk due to the annual ice break up and their remote locations which can make evacuations difficult and more costly. Figure 4. The total number of heavy rain events for Ontario Environment Canada, The Great Lakes can also contribute to the risk of floods for communities along their shorelines from storm surges or, much rarer, seiches.
The worst flood in the recorded history of Ontario was caused by Hurricane Hazel in The heavy precipitation from the storm, the inability of the soil to hold more moisture due to previous rain and the alteration of natural streams and channels by humans, lead to severe flooding and the loss of 81 lives.
Since flood management practices were implemented, the number of flood-related injuries and fatalities has greatly declined. Flooding can result in loss of life due to drowning or, if the flood waters are carrying a significant amount of debris or ice, crushing. Motorists are vulnerable to floods since only about two feet of water can lift and carry away most cars Raven Rescue, Health problems may arise after the flood due to contamination of standing water, the back up of sewers and the growth of mould in buildings that suffered water damage.
Of all of the hazards in Ontario, flooding is the most likely based on past events, to require the evacuation of some or all of a community.
A flood can wash away buildings and roads and destroy bridges and communications towers. Emergency vehicles may not be able to reach people due to flooded or washed-out roads resulting in some people being isolated and stranded.
Debris carried by the water can contribute to the damage. The water may be contaminated by chemicals and waste picked up by the water which may prevent or slow the restoration of property that is not outwardly damaged by the flood. Water damage and mould growth may add to the damage.
Water quality and human health emergencies may arise as secondary hazards after a flood. Particularly in urban floods, sewage systems may be overwhelmed and damaged by the excess water. This may result in raw sewage backing up into homes. Electricity is likely to be halted to the affected areas in order to prevent accidental electrocution. Water quality may diminish due to bacteria, sewage or chemicals being introduced into the water supply by the flood.
Floods that are part of a natural cycle can actually be beneficial to the environment and provide nutrients to the soil. These floods result in little environmental damage. However, human caused changes to the environment have altered the runoff patterns in some areas resulting in changes in flood frequency and severity. These floods have the potential to cause more harm to the environment since they may occur in areas which did not previously experience floods and they may result in more erosion than would occur within a natural system.
Another possible cause of environmental damage is that the flood water may be contaminated with raw sewage, chemicals or other contaminants. The degree of the interruption depends on the size of the affected area. The transportation of both people and goods may be halted if the roads are flooded.
Electricity and gas may be shut off. Depending on the severity of the flood, the entire community may require evacuation. Water damage and mould growth may slow the reopening of businesses.
Floods are the leading cause of declared emergencies in Ontario Emergency Management Ontario, An examination of the history of flooding and insurance claims in Ontario suggests that flooding, in particular, urban flooding events are increasing in frequency and that damage costs are rising due to increases in the population size, climate change, aging urban infrastructure and increasing property values.
The city of Peterborough experienced urban flooding in More than 4, houses were affected by the flood waters and people required rescues after flood waters trapped them in their cars. Sewer systems backed up and contaminated the flood waters. Due to the hazardous conditions created by the flood, gas and electricity were disconnected leaving many residents in the dark.
Fog is usually a small-scale, brief hazard that is common particularly around the Great Lakes. There are many types of fog. The two most common types in Ontario that pose a risk to safety are advection and radiation fogs.
Advection fog is generated when moist air travels over a cool surface. This type of fog can be widespread. Radiation fog is more localized and is generated by surface cooling in calm weather conditions. It often occurs close to open fields or streams in slight depressions.
Fog often forms late at night and may persist through to the morning resulting in reduced visibility during rush hour traffic. Smoke can contribute to fog formation by providing condensation nuclei for water droplets to adhere to, which then becomes fog. The most common social impacts attributed to fog can be considered partly the result of a secondary hazard, transportation accidents.
Fog reduces visibility which can create hazardous driving conditions. When visibility has been reduced to less than m, studies have shown that drivers are more likely to underestimate their speed and fail to successfully judge the distance between vehicles Moore and Cooper, Radiation fog has been found to pose a greater threat to drivers than advection fog. Since advection fog can be fairly consistent and widespread, drivers generally adjust their speed for the uniform fog conditions.
Radiation fog is not as consistent and visibility may change suddenly. Radiation fog can also reduce visibility more than other types of fog due to the smaller droplet size and the greater concentrations of droplets Musk, Fog is a naturally occurring hazard in Ontario. It is normally fairly localized. As seen in Figure 4, thick fog is more common in Southern Ontario. The weather patterns, geography and the presence of the Great Lakes all contribute to the higher number of fog days.
Fog is more likely to result in an emergency if it occurs in an area with a high traffic volume. Southern Ontario has the highest traffic volume in Ontario. It also has a higher population density, so more people are exposed to this hazard. Fog is generally a localized hazard and often only affects a part of a municipality.
Widespread fog rarely encompasses more than a couple of municipalities. Figure 5. The average number of hours per year with a visibility of zero kilometres due to fog Environment Canada, a. Fog rarely results in negative social impacts.
However, it has been known to result in traffic accidents due to a lack of visibility which may result in fatalities and injuries.
The risk increases if the fog occurs during either the morning or evening rush hour in an area with a high traffic volume. Fog is unlikely to directly cause any property or infrastructure damage. Dense fog and high speed resulted in the collision of at least 40 vehicles, including transport trucks, vans and cars on Hwy. At least 40 vehicles collided, including transport trucks, vans and cars. Seven deaths and 33 injuries were reported. A fire caused by the crash caused the road's asphalt to melt, and destroyed many of the vehicles.
Fire is an important part of the natural cycle of forest maintaince. However, if it or the smoke produced by the fire encroaches on human settlements or interests it can become a dangerous hazard to human, animal and plant life, property and business Blanchi et al. Human caused fires are the most common type in Ontario with approximately two thirds of all fires caused by human activities.
The only natural cause is lightning. Fires caused by lightning can occur anywhere that a thunderstorm passes close by.
Therefore, some of the fires occur in very remote areas that are not easily accessible to humans. Human caused fires tend to be closer to human settlements since increased human access to the forest results in a greater chance for a human caused fire to be started.
The percentage of fires with a natural cause versus the percentage of fires with a human cause varies across Canada. The moisture content of the fuel has an important influence on the duration and spread of the fire. Dry organic matter ignites and burns faster than organic matter with high moisture content. Prolonged, dry weather, especially drought conditions, can increase the amount and quality of the organic matter available as fuel.
In addition, drought can dry out areas which have served as natural firebreaks in the past Keetch and Byram, Wet weather conditions decrease the quality of the fuel and can suppress fire. Wind can provide another requirement for the ignition and spread of a fire, oxygen. High wind speeds can assist in spreading the fire and can create an environment for fire suppression that is even more dangerous than in calm weather conditions. Some plant diseases and infestation result in the death of trees and plants, thereby contributing to the amount of organic matter available for fuel.
Low: smoldering or self-extinguishing fire. Flame height: less than 10 centimeters. Medium: creeping or gentle surface fire. Direct manual attack by firefighters with hand tools and water is possible. Hand-constructed fire guard should hold. Flame height: up to 1 meter. High: moderately vigorous surface fire.
A hand-constructed fire guard will probably fail. Heavy equipment bulldozers, pumpers, and aircraft is generally successful in controlling the fire. Flame height: up to 2 meters. Very high: intense surface fire. Frequent torching is possible. Control efforts at the fire's head may fail. Flame height: up to 3 meters. Extreme: crown fire. Control is very difficult. Suppression action restricted to the fire's flanks. Indirect attack with aerial ignition backfiring may be effective.
Flame height: 3 to 25 meters or more. Organized forest fire protection has been active in Ontario since The Forest Fire Management Strategy for Ontario provides a broad direction for the fire management program and is the strategy of fire control practiced together with land management objectives.
The Forest Fire Management Strategy for Ontario considers environmental, social and economic criteria. The average number of forest fires a year in Ontario ranges from to 3, Fires are more common during the spring before canopy cover is renewed and while there this still a large amount of dry vegetation on the forest floor and summer when lightning is more frequent. Both of these seasons tend to have periods of hot, dry and windy weather which can benefit the spread of fire.
The most common source of these fires is campfires MNR, Fires caused by lightning strikes frequently burn a much larger area than the human-caused fires Podur and Martell, , although these areas are more likely to be unpopulated. New and emerging pests are contributing to the fire hazard. Some pests, such as the pine beetle, damage and kill trees which increase the amount of dry, dead organic matter that can provide fuel for a fire.
Of particular concern are fires that occur within or close to the Wildland Urban Interface. Some examples of the different wildland-urban interface areas in Ontario are: Cities, buildings, structures including subdivisions, cottages, recreational facilities etc that either contain forest or brush within their limits; are situated within a broad expanse of forest or brush or those that are located adjacent to forest or brush.
Growing populations and the expansion of people into Wildland Urban Interface areas have increased the potential impact of a forest fire, in particular, on property damage and large scale evacuations.
When forest fires approach populated areas, they can endanger lives. However, due to improvements in fire prediction and forest fire management, deaths due to forest fires remain uncommon in Ontario.
Additionally, injuries due to forest fires are also uncommon although there are often health concerns about air quality and smoke.
Evacuations may occur due to smoke even if the community is not directly threatened by the fire itself. As population density increases in the wildland urban interface, evacuations can grow in size.
Property and infrastructure in Ontario are vulnerable to forest fire. Forest fires can result in substantial property and infrastructure damage. Buildings and structures within the path of the fire may be completely burned. Buildings that remain structurally intact after a fire has ended may have had their contents damaged due to smoke. Roads can be damaged as the fire passes over them.
Electrical lines can also be destroyed by fire resulting in power outages. Forest fires are a natural feature of the forest ecosystem. While a forest fire may have what appear to be negative effects, these often turn out to be beneficial in the long-term to the health and maintaince of the ecosystem.
Many species are adapted to fire. Some species of tree such as jack pine used fire to release their seeds from their cones. Fire also benefits vegetation by enriching the soil with ash, allowing more light and precipitation to reach the forest floor through the removal of some of the canopy and reducing the competition for some species.
Fire can help control invasive species including insects, plants and diseases that have not evolved in areas in which fire is a natural part of the maintaince of the landscape. The majority of animals are able to escape forest fires so the effects of fires are believed to be fairly minimal in the long term MNR Ontario, Marine ecosystems may be negatively impacted by forest fires. Erosion and changes in water temperature caused by the loss of vegetation due to a fire can impact water quality negatively affecting cold water fish habitats MNR, Ontario, Resources needed for suppression may be costly.
The forestry sector is the industry most likely to be negatively impacted by forest fires, although tourism can also be severely affected. In , forest fires and their smoke threatened the health and safety of several communities in Northern Ontario. Concerns about the proximity of the fires and the smoke that they produced resulted in the evacuations of more than 1, people. A total of six communities declared emergencies. Winter weather includes a variety of different types of precipitation including snow, rain and freezing rain.
In order for freezing rain to form, there must be a layer of air with temperatures above-freezing over a layer of air near and at the surface with below-freezing temperatures. When the air temperature above the warmer air is below-freezing snow crystals begin to grow into snowflakes.
Freezing rain will form if snow falls into a warmer layer of above-freezing air that is deep enough for the snow to melt and then passes through a below-freezing layer of air near and at the surface. The depth of the below-freezing layer is important in determining whether freezing rain or ice pellets will form. If the below-freezing layer is too deep greater than metres , the droplets may freeze again and reach the ground as ice pellets.
If the below-freezing layer is shallower than metres, the droplets will cool to a temperature that is only a few tenths of a degree below freezing. These droplets are super cooled and will remain as a liquid. These will freeze on contact with the ground or cold objects near the ground, such as roads, trees, and power or telephone wires. In some instances, freezing rain may form by a different mechanism in which the droplets originate as liquid water rather than snow or ice and there is no layer of above-freezing temperatures to pass through Klaassen et al.
An injured person is taken for medical treatment by emergency response workers after the ice storm. Ice storms can deposit layers of ice onto the ground and object that are heavy enough to cause damage.
The amount of ice accumulation depends on the duration and intensity of the freezing rain event. Freezing rain may not be continuous during an ice storm but may occur in successive waves. Freezing rain is a frequent hazard in Ontario. Northern and Central Ontario experience the greatest number of days per year with freezing precipitation Figure 5 with an average of over 17 days per year. Southern Ontario has fewer days per year with an average of just over 11 days. In general, these have lasted between 12 hours and days Environment Canada, Freezing rain can be a small scale or a large scale hazard, depending on the size of the storm system.
Figure 6. The population of Ontario is not very vulnerable to freezing rain. Fatalities and injuries directly related to freezing rain are rare. However, they are possible. The Ice Storm of resulted in 28 fatalities and injuries in Canada.
Most fatalities and injuries are due to secondary hazards, such as transportation accidents caused by the poor driving conditions generated by the freezing rain. Property and infrastructure is moderately to highly vulnerable to freezing rain. Transportation and electrical infrastructure are particularly sensitive to freezing rain.
The layer of ice deposited by freezing rain, in addition to fallen branches and sometimes whole trees can make roads and bridges impassable. Power lines can be disrupted either by broken branches or by ice accumulation. If the ice accumulation is great enough, structures such as communications towers may crumple, disrupting communications systems.
Buildings may be damaged by ice accumulation and the resulting water seepage. People can become trapped in their homes without essential services such as electricity and heat. Health care facilities may be significantly impacted and experience capacity overload.
Plants, in particular deciduous trees are especially sensitive to the effects of freezing rain. After the ice storm of January , some tree branches were found to have experienced ice accumulation that was approximately fifty times their own weight Quebec, When the weight of the ice reaches a critical limit the tree branches break which can result in substantial damage to the canopy.
Agriculture, particularly maple syrup production and orchards may suffer substantial losses. Gardens and ornamental plants can also be damaged. Animals overall seem to cope well with the effects of freezing rain, however, a strong event with heavy accumulation may make it more difficult for them to find food.
Birds tend to fair worse than other animals. Freezing rain, in particular ice storms with a long duration and that result in a large ice accumulation can significantly disrupt business and financial transactions in several different ways.
Freezing rain can result in power outages and can severely hinder road and rail travel which could led to financial loss, especially if it occurs for several days. Provinces from Ontario to New Brunswick received between 50 to greater than mm of freezing rain from January 6 to 10 th , Fifty-seven communities in Ontario declared an emergency and approximately , customers an estimated 1,, people were left without electricity.
The accumulation of ice crumpled communications towers and broke tree branches. The broken branches and the layer of ice left on roads made driving difficult. A temporary and severe disturbance of the upper atmosphere and of the near-Earth space environment caused by the magnetic activity of the Sun based on National Research Council, Geomagnetic storms originate from erupting sunspots on the surface of the sun.
Active solar regions release coronal mass ejections CMEs. This type of activity causes the aurora borealis and aurora australis. However, the effects of a strong geomagnetic storm are not limited to just the lights of the auroras; they can also damage electronics and communications systems. Countries at high latitudes are more at risk of the effects of geomagnetic storms, but the impacts of an extreme storm could be far reaching.
It is important to note that an EMP electromagnetic pulse blast would have similar affects to a strong geomagnetic storm. EMPs can be caused by the denotation of a nuclear weapon.
Auroras, such as the one pictured; occur during strong geomagnetic events NOAA, If a part of the infrastructure is damaged or unavailable it can result the damage or disruption on other types of infrastructure which result in short and long-term disruptions and impacts National Research Council, The United States National Research Council held a workshop in in an attempt to assess the societal and economic impacts of a severe geomagnetic storm.
This report stated that a large electrical outage caused by a geomagnetic storm is a low frequency but high consequence event with negative impacts ranging from a breakdown of the pumps required to distribute potable water to a communication blackout. Since a geomagnetic storm has the potential to cause a long term power outage, generators may run out of fuel before electricity is restored.
While past geomagnetic storms have caused damage e. Quebec, ; future storms could be much stronger. Historical records have shown that the strongest geomagnetic storm in recent history was the Carrington event in , before widespread electrical technology was used.
This storm caused telegraph disruptions and widespread vivid auroras. Ontario is located at fairly high latitude. Because of this, the province faces a greater risk of geomagnetic storms than locations which are geographically more southern. Ontario also is dependent on technology and electricity for critical functions and systems such as the food supply, water distribution, banking, transportation and communications. People are not directly vulnerable to geomagnetic storms, with the exception of those who are dependant on electrical and technological medical devices and perishable medications.
The population, however, is much more vulnerable to the critical infrastructure failures that would be triggered by a geomagnetic storm. For example, the City of Toronto alone has greater than 2, buildings, many of which are residential, that are in excess of over ft in height. Potable water would stop flowing since the pumps require electricity. People in high-rises could lose their potable water in less than a day after a geomagnetic storm with other building and small communities having access to water for at most a couple of days.
If a geomagnetic storm occurred during the winter, heating systems would fail which could lead to deaths from hypothermia and property damage from burst pipes. A large amount of the food production and distribution process in Ontario also requires electricity. Property is not particularly vulnerable to geomagnetic storms.
As stated previously, however, infrastructure is. Any infrastructure which is dependent on electricity and technology is extremely vulnerable. Widespread power outages could occur. The Toronto and Ottawa subways and street cars would immediately stop functioning, stranding passengers. Many vehicles are built with technology that could be compromised by a powerful geomagnetic storm.
Health care would be greatly impacted if the fuel for hospital generators ran out before the power was restored or if medicine and medical supplies were not able to be refrigerated or transported to them. Satellites could stop functioning and result in a disruption of communications.
Geomagnetic storms can also corrode pipelines which could negatively impact the distribution of oil and natural gas. The environment is not known to be particularly vulnerable to geomagnetic storms. Lessons learnt: 1. One small mistake could be the difference between life and death. All the gear, all the damn time!! When you realize you have done a mistake or you could fall, keep calm and try to redeem yourself;as long as you lessen your risk. Our vision is to make motorcycling safer and more enjoyable by providing quality training for current and prospective riders, and advocating a safer riding environment in Kenya.
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